Oligarchy in the US Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Oligarchy in the US - Essay Example The audience of the article is the average American populace. Aristotle, credited for the term oligarchy, defines oligarchy as the exercise of power by wealthy citizens, which causes intense political disparities that essentially accompany excessive material inequalities. While the average American populace constitutes a large percentage of Americans as compared to the wealthy, they still have no voice in decision making concerning economic and political issues in America. As a result, economic disparities continue to persist within Americans, and the average American populace must understand their role in public policy making. Jeffrey Winters and Benjamin Page present evidence that the United States is both democratic and oligarchic. The fact that oligarchs can operate separately without knowing each other is evidence that oligarchy can go unnoticed in several instances (Winters and Page 739). In addition, the extent of economic disparity in the United States proves the authors points about oligarchy. Even so, the authors affirm that there is significant substantiation from academic research that public policy in the United States is not set by oligarchs, but rather reacts strongly to the inclination of normal citizens. The coexistence of oligarchy and democracy is evident because, at times the decision of people counts, while in other cases, the viewpoint of the wealthy sways public

Are Juries the Most Appropriate Way of Deciding Guilt?

Are Juries the Most Appropriate Way of Deciding Guilt? Abigail Louise Lines   From a Psychological Perspective, Are Juries the Most Appropriate Way of Deciding a Persons Guilt? The judicial system within the United Kingdom has a perverse history, with its origins in the church influencing modern systems and the human rights we have within the court today (Brooks, 2004). Before criminal trial juries were an established concept in the United Kingdom, there were three ways in which the degree of a persons innocence was established: a Wager of Law, Trial by Battle and The Ordeals (Brooks, 2004). These tests primarily consisted of physical challenges in which God was believed to be the primary authority to pass judgement and decide a persons guilt; these trials disregarded human rights, often involved physical anguish and frequently resulted in the death of the accused (Brooks, 2004). It was not until 1219 that individuals accused of a crime were allowed to appeal to a jury, however, individuals who refused to appeal through a jury were subjected to Prison Forte et Dure, where the accused were physically and emotionally tried until they consented to this appeal procedure (Berger, 2011). Due to the influence of the church and the belief that God was involved in the decision of guilt, it was rare that jury members in the appeal procedure would have to justify their decisions and have their verdicts questioned (Berger, 2011). During the early 1300s jurors verdicts began to be doubted and those who served on a jury could be challenged as unfit, incompetent or corrupt; this later led to reforms as to who would be allowed to serve on a jury and an emphasis on mandatory guidelines to follow (Smith Wales, 2000). Modern criminal trials consist of 12-16 individuals selected at random from the electoral register to represent their peers; they discuss the factors influencing the case at hand to ultimately determine the level of guilt of the involved and to deliver an appropriate verdict (Smith Wales, 1999). Juror capabilities have been questioned in recent years due to a rising number of [G1]criticisms of competency, variances between the judges and jurys verdict, and the role of inadmissible evidence which is believed to influence jurors decisions (Smith Wales, 1999; Hans, 2008). To understand and assess whether juries are appropriate for deciding an individuals guilt, the current essay will explore psychological evidence and criticisms of the jury. It will critically evaluate factors involved in juror decision making and competency, recognising the role of current systems in place and how these systems may influence the reliability of jurors. Furthermore, it will investigate alternatives to juries, systems used in countries outside of the UK and improvements to be made to the modern jury.[G2][G3][G4][G5][G6] Juror decision making models have been a point of interest for those critiquing the jury system; several empirical studies have created and reviewed models of juror decision making to evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of having a jury (Pennington Hastie, 1981). Cognitive models of juror decision making are the more commonly accepted approaches, specifically that of the Story Model (Pennington Hastie, 1992). The Story Model assumes that jurors construct stories when deciding on a verdict; they will piece together known elements of the case, learn the appropriate verdicts for the individual and then make a decision based on the goodness of fit principle (Pennington Hastie, 1992). Although this structure recognises that individuals will use schemas to interpret the case at hand, it relies on this aspect heavily when individuals create the stories (Pennington Hastie, 1992). Due to the level of variance in individuals schemas, this may be a critique of using jurors in civil and cr iminal trials due to the differences in how they interpret events within the case; it makes it increasingly difficult to come to a unanimous decision, especially in complex cases wherein there are multiple aggravating and mitigating factors involved (Devine, Clayton, Dunford, Seying Pryce, 2001). The Story Model also takes into account the jurors previous knowledge of the legal system when applying their story to the verdict; this again uses real world knowledge court cases which may not derive from reliable sources, such as movies and television shows, which in turn may cause them to arrive at a disagreeable or incorrect verdict (Devine, Clayton, Dunford, Seying Pryce, 2001). Few meta-analyses have reviewed models of juror decision making, however, all have arrived at similar conclusions for improvements (Saks Marti, 1997; Devine, Clayton, Dunford, Seying Pryce, 2001). Variables such as knowledge of legal terms, clarification of verdict options, jury personality types, defendant criminal history and the strength of the evidence presented all affect jury decision outcomes[G7] in studies; without systematically controlling for these factors in studies, it is difficult to firmly accept the level at which jurors are a reliable means of assessing an individuals guilt (Devine, Clayton, Dunford, Seying Pryce, 2001). It is, however, possible to understand improvements to be made to the current jury system from the meta-analyses on decision making models; Saks and Marti (1997) explained that jurors express difficulty in understanding and applying instructions given by the judge. This thought to be due to the specific language used in legal settings, which indiv iduals without training may find difficult to understand; it has been suggested that instructions given by judges should be mediated for language which may confuse jurors and be re-written to allow for clarification (Saks Marti 1997; Hans, 2008). [G8][G9] Juror competency is currently monitored within the United Kingdom, through a comparison of verdicts, analysis of verdict patterns, a series of interviews or questionnaires and also through the use of mock jury studies (Hans, 2008). As previously mentioned, there are concerns that jurors may find it difficult within a court setting to understand the specific legal terminology used by judges, however, there is also evidence that jurors may express difficulty in understanding statistical and economic evidence; this is of particular concern during complex cases with industry specific language, wherein the jury may not be able to discuss the specific factors regarding the case as they are unable to fully comprehend it (ForsterLee, Horowitz, Bourgeois, 1993). There have been studies which disagree with this critique, as findings have shown that Judges and Jurors generally match in their verdicts in cases involving complex language (Eisenberg, Hannaford-Agor, Hans, Mott, Schwab Wells, 200 5). Further studies exploring individual versus group competence wield reassuring results for those in favour of the judicial system; one study exploring theorems of group confidence found that regardless of the overall individual competence, jury members in a larger group are less likely to make mistakes due to being able to deliberate on ideas (Grofman, Owen Feld, 1983). Along with larger group sizes increasing juror competence, several studies have found that note taking and engagement is the ideal way in which juror competence is enhanced; jurors that weigh in, take notes and assume an active role in deliberating the final verdict have been shown to have a higher level of engagement with the case, which leads to a higher level of competence (Heuer Penrod, 1994; Forsterlee Horowitz, 1997). Until 1967, the British court required juries to reach a unanimous verdict; modern UK courts judges will now accept a majority vote, however, in some states in the USA the unanimity rule is still applied (Sunstein, 2014). It is believed that forcing juries to reach unanimous verdicts decreases the chance that an innocent individual is convicted, and the guilty being acquitted, yet research argues that these errors may actually increase if individuals are forced to reach unanimity (Feddersen Pesendorfer, 1998). This is believed to be due to jurors attempting to apply strategic behaviour to their decision making while disregarding their intuition (Feddersen Pesendorfer, 1998). [G10] Further criticisms of the unanimity rule consider that forcing unanimous verdicts increases the time and costs of court trials, and also increases the chance of a retrial taking place (Neilson Winter, 2005; McCormick, 2012). While this supports the use of juries for deciding a persons guilt, there is conflicting research which suggests that allowing for a majority verdict may cause uncertainty in the final outcome; several studies have found that those forced to make unanimous decisions found greater satisfaction and confidence in their decisions, as they felt as though they had discussed evidence more thoroughly and delayed their voting (Diamond, Rose Murphy, 2012; Sunstein, 2014). Furthermore, OConnor (2003) argued that not having unanimity decreases confidence and reliability within the group if one juror disagrees; it is therefore contended that forcing a unanimous decision increases the principle that there is proof beyond reasonable doubt that the individual is guilty. [G11] The role of inadmissible evidence is also a concern within court cases within the United Kingdom due to the increased exposure of online materials which may sway jurors verdicts; inadmissible evidence not only includes pre-trial exposure, but also statements and information revealed in court (Lieberman Arndt, 2000). Certain safeguards are currently in place to ensure that inadmissible evidence does not affect jurors or their verdicts, such as continuance, a reliance on voir dire to remove biased jurors, deliberations, and admonitions (Lieberman Arndt, 2000). It is believed, however, that these precautions have little effect on juror prejudice and in some cases may backfire ([G12]Lieberman Sales, 1997; Lieberman Arndt, 2000; Steblay, Hosch, Culhane McWethy, 2006). This reluctance to ignore inadmissible evidence may be explained by several psychological theories such as Belief Perseverance, Hindsight Bias and Reactance Theory (Lieberman Arndt, 2000). Reactance Theory is the more commonly accepted theory behind this effect as it explains why there is a reluctance with certain forms of evidence; it occurs when individuals feel that their freedom is limited and therefore attempt to re-establish this autonomy and gain control (Torrance Brehm, 1968; Lieberman Arndt, 2000). Empirical research has been found to highlight the negative consequences of inadmissible evidence on jurors; jurors have been found to issue more guilty verdicts when strong inadmissible evidence is given, and the strength of this evidence also has the ability to influence the overall confidence in their verdict (Sue, Smith, Caldwell, 1973). Furthermore, one study conducted by Thompson, Fong and Rosenhan (1981) found that when given pro-acquittal inadmissible evidence, jurors are less likely to convict the defendant; this study also revealed that jurors were able to recognise that their decisions have been influenced by inadmissible evidence. This may be detrimental to the belief that juries are the most appropriate method of deciding an individuals guilt as it demonstrates the reluctance to follow instructions from members of authority; it further establishes that although jurors recognise that they are being influenced by inadmissible evidence, they will do little in terms of reco nsidering their final verdicts. In light of this research, several psychologists have recommended ways to lessen the impact of inadmissible evidence. One meta-analysis covering 48 studies and 8,474 participants has found that while judicial instructions do not lessen the influence of inadmissible evidence, if a rationale is given for disregarding the evidence, such as it having a negative effect on family members of those implicated, the overall influence of it is reduced (Steblay, Hosch, Culhane McWethy, 2006). Further recommendations include jurors repeatedly sworn in before deliberation begins; this allows for an emphasis on the importance of disregarding inadmissible evidence and motivation to follow the law (Lieberman Sales, 1997; Lieberman Arndt, 2000). Research regarding juror decision making has been applied to many stages in legal processes, with courts obtaining information frequently from social scientists to assist in legal battles; psychologists are commonly requested in court as expert witnesses, in cases such as eyewitness testimonies, to educate the jurors and ensure they competent when deliberating on the trial (Kassin, Ellsworth Smith, 1989; Pennington Hastie, 1990). Although the role of [G13]an expert witness calls for those of sound scientific and technical understanding to assist the jury, there are critics who argue that those who testify as an expert may hold biases; claims that researchers appearing in particularly violent or morally ambiguous cases, such as those involving rape or child molestation, may still hold personal values when issuing a statement, therefore when these personal values appear they may sway the jury in a certain direction (Loftus Monahan, 1980). In this case it is not the jurys responsibil ity to counteract this measure, however, the defence, [G14]prosecution, [G15]and judge must ensure that counterclaims are issued should bias remarks enter the court (Loftus Monahan, 1980). Nevertheless, this remains a criticism of the practicality of using juries when deciding an individuals guilt. [G16][G17] With these criticisms of the modern jury in mind, some researchers have explored alternatives to juries which include specially qualified jurors and the concept of a non-jury tribunal (Norris, 1993). There are currently few specifications when an individual is called to jury service, with exceptions including a history of mental health conditions, reduced English speaking or writing aptitude or those who have served a prison sentence in the last five years; due to the limited criteria, researchers have expressed concern that those presiding over important decisions may not possess the acumen to understand the ramifications of sentencing, therefore, minimal educational qualifications should be imposed (Norris, 1993). Norris (1993) has explained that it would be desirable that those serving on a jury hold specialist qualifications especially in complex cases, for example, a bachelors degree. [G18]Norris (1993) continues by explaining that if minimal educational qualifications are not e nough to ensure the competence of jurors, then expert non-jury tribunals may be of use in complex, industry-specific cases.   [G19][G20][G21][G22] Although juror incompetence is a concern, both of these suggestions appeal for educated jurors to be called more frequently into jury service, especially for more convoluted cases; criticisms of these improvements include the criterion in which we define a complex case, that jurors may no longer be considered peers but superiors, and that some industries are already limited in their personnel, therefore, frequently calling them to jury service may negatively affect their area of work (Hersch, 2003). Henkel (1976) explains that alternatives and improvements should be made, however, until these concerns are resolved smaller changes should be made to ensure the competence of jurors. There are several alternatives to juries which are currently used within other countries, such as the use of religious law which utilises divine doctrines to pass judgement, or a mixed system of civil and religious law which recognises cultural and lawful judgements, and full tribunals without the use of juries (Frase, 1990). Due to the mix of cultures in the United Kingdom, the reintroduction of religious law would not be advisable to improve the current judicial system. France officially abolished trial by jury in 1941 and now uses six lay judges, and three professional judges to preside over cases; in this system there are separate tribunals for how serious the offence is and the type of offence involved (Frase, 1990). While we may look to this structure to improve our own judicial system, one concern would be that they would not represent those from the community on trial, as they are more likely to come from a primarily middle class and legal background (Frase, 1990). To conclude, the criticisms offered in the current essay explain that the current judicial system is not without flaw. The structure currently used within the United Kingdom could make several improvements to increase the degree to which jurors make an appropriate decision, such as specialists which assist jurors in understanding the language used within the court system, the encouragement of note taking and taking an active role in deliberation, further precautions taken to lessen the impact of inadmissible evidence, and safeguards in place to ensure that prejudices from expert witnesses do not influence jurors in their verdicts. It is advised that policy makers take these issues into account when discussing the current regulations in place. Before we are able to implement improvements and look to other systems for advice, we must appreciate that the current judicial structure has been in the United Kingdom, and influenced other countries systems such as the United States, for a num ber of years. Although the current essay establishes that juries may not be the more appropriate method for deciding a persons guilt, until realistic alternatives are established and tested, juries will remain to be the only viable option within the United Kingdom.[G23] References Berger, B. (2011). Judges, Juries, and the History of Criminal Appeals. Law And History Review, 29(01), 297-302. doi: 10.1017/s073824801000129x. Devine, D., Clayton, L., Dunford, B., Seying, R., Pryce, J. (2001). Jury decision making: 45 years of empirical research on deliberating groups. Psychology, Public Policy, And Law, 7(3), 622-727. doi: 10.1037//1076-8971.7.3.622. Diamond, S., Murphy, B., Rose, M. (2012). The Kettleful of Law in Real Jury Deliberations: Successes and Failures. SSRN Electronic Journal, 106(4), 1537. doi: 10.2139/ssrn.1641552. Eisenberg, T., Hannaford-Agor, P., Hans, V., Waters, N., Munsterman, G., Schwab, S., Wells, M. (2005). Judge-Jury Agreement in Criminal Cases: A Partial Replication of Kalven and Zeisels The American Jury. Journal Of Empirical Legal Studies, 2(1), 171-207. doi: 10.1111/j.1740-1461.2005.00035.x. Feddersen, T. Pesendorfer, W. (1998). Convicting the Innocent: The Inferiority of Unanimous Jury Verdicts under Strategic Voting. American Political Science Review, 92(01), 23-35. doi: 10.2307/2585926. Forsterlee, L. Horowitz, I. (1997). Enhancing Juror Competence in a Complex Trial. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 11(4), 305-319. doi: 10.1002/(sici)1099-0720(199708)11:43.0.co;2-j. ForsterLee, L., Horowitz, I., Bourgeois, M. (1993). Juror Competence In Civil Trials: Effects Of Pre-instruction And Evidence Technicality. Journal Of Applied Psychology, 78(1), 14-21. doi: 10.1037//0021-9010.78.1.14. Frase, R. (1990). Comparative Criminal Justice as a Guide to American Law Reform: How Do the French Do It, How Can We Find out, and Why Should We Care? California Law Review, 78(3), 539. doi: 10.2307/3480841. Grofman, B., Owen, G., Feld, S. (1983). Thirteen Theorems In Search Of The Truth. Theory And Decision, 15(3), 261-278. Doi: 10.1007/bf00125672. Hans, V. (2008). Jury Systems Around the World. Annual Review Of Law And Social Science, 4(1), 275-297. doi: 10.1146/annurev.lawsocsci.4.110707.172319. Henkel, J. (1976). The Civil Jury-Modification Or Abolition. American Business Law Journal, 14(1), 97-109. doi: 10.1111/j.1744-1714.1976.tb00442.x. Hersch, J. (2003). Jury Demands and Trials. SSRN Electronic Journal, 447. doi: 10.2139/ssrn.487781. Heuer, L. Penrod, S. (1994). Juror Notetaking And Question Asking During Trials: A National Field Experiment. Law And Human Behavior, 18(2), 121-150. doi: 10.1007/bf01499012. Kassin, S., Ellsworth, P., Smith, V. (1989). The General Acceptance Of Psychological Research On Eyewitness Testimony: A Survey Of The Experts. American Psychologist, 44(8), 1089-1098. doi: 10.1037//0003-066x.44.8.1089. Lieberman, J. Arndt, J. (2000). Understanding The Limits Of Limiting Instructions: Social Psychological Explanations For The Failures Of Instructions To Disregard Pretrial Publicity And Other Inadmissible Evidence. Psychology, Public Policy, And Law, 6(3), 677-711. doi: 10.1037//1076-8971.6.3.677. Lieberman, J. Sales, B. (1997). What Social Science Teaches Us About The Jury Instruction Process? Psychology, Public Policy, And Law, 3(4), 589-644. doi: 10.1037//1076-8971.3.4.589. Loftus, E. Monahan, J. (1980). Trial By Data: Psychological Research As Legal Evidence. American Psychologist, 35(3), 270-283. doi: 10.1037//0003-066x.35.3.270. McCormick, R. (2012). The Unanimous State. The Journal Of The Rutgers University Libraries, 23(1). doi: 10.14713/jrul.v23i1.1384. Neilson, W. Winter, H. (2005). The Elimination of Hung Juries: Retrials and Nonunanimous Verdicts. International Review Of Law And Economics, 25(1), 1-19. doi: 10.1016/j.irle.2005.05.004. Norris, W. (1993). Relevant Conduct: Sentencing Hearings as a Substitute for Jury Trials. Federal Sentencing Reporter, 5(4), 193-194. doi: 10.2307/20639552. OConnor, S. (2003). William Howard Taft and the Importance of Unanimity. Journal Of Supreme Court History, 28(2), 157-164. doi: 10.1111/1540-5818.00061. Pennington, N. Hastie, R. (1981). Juror Decision-Making Models: The Generalization Gap. Psychological Bulletin, 89(2), 246-287. doi: 10.1037//0033-2909.89.2.246. Pennington, N. Hastie, R. (1990). Practical Implications of Psychological Research on Juror and Jury Decision Making. Personality And Social Psychology Bulletin, 16(1), 90-105. doi: 10.1177/0146167290161007. Pennington, N. Hastie, R. (1992). Explaining the evidence: Tests of the Story Model for juror decision making. Journal Of Personality And Social Psychology, 62(2), 189-206. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.62.2.189. Saks, M. Marti, M. (1997). A Meta-Analysis Of The Effects Of Jury Size. Law And Human Behavior, 21(5), 451-467. doi: 10.1023/a:1024819605652. Salerno, J. Diamond, S. (2010). The Promise Of A Cognitive Perspective On Jury Deliberation. Psychonomic Bulletin Review, 17(2), 174-179. doi: 10.3758/pbr.17.2.174. Smith, G. Wales, C. (1999). The Theory and Practice of Citizens Juries. Policy Politics, 27(3), 295-308. doi: 10.1332/030557399782453118. Smith, G. Wales, C. (2000). Citizens Juries and Deliberative Democracy. Political Studies, 48(1), 51-65. doi: 10.1111/1467-9248.00250. Steblay, N., Hosch, H., Culhane, S., McWethy, A. (2006). The Impact on Juror Verdicts of Judicial Instruction to Disregard Inadmissible Evidence: A Meta-Analysis. Law And Human Behavior, 30(4), 469-492. doi: 10.1007/s10979-006-9039-7. Sue, S., Smith, R., Caldwell, C. (1973). Effects of Inadmissible Evidence on the Decisions of Simulated Jurors: A Moral Dilemma. Journal Of Applied Social Psychology, 3(4), 345-353. doi: /10.1111/j.1559-1816.1973.tb02401.x. Sunstein, C. (2014). Unanimity and Disagreement on the Supreme Court. SSRN Electronic Journal, 100, 769. doi: 10.2139/ssrn.2466057. Thompson, W., Fong, G., Rosenhan, D. (1981). Inadmissible Evidence And Juror Verdicts. Journal Of Personality And Social Psychology, 40(3), 453-463. doi: 10.1037//0022-3514.40.3.453. Torrance, E. Brehm, J. (1968). A Theory of Psychological Reactance. The American Journal Of Psychology, 81(1), 133. doi: 10.2307/1420824. 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Plasic Surgery Essay -- essays research papers

Nature of Plastic Surgery A nip here, a tuck there and now science is making it easier to change the appearance of one’s self. It’s called plastic surgery and now more than ever people are taking part in these risky surgical producers. Not only are there obvious risks taken on one’s self when the decision is made but risks are also taken when it comes to the impact on family, friends, and the doctors performing these dangerous acts. The risks associated with plastic surgery makes this procedure a bad decision. When a patient decides to go through with the procedure him/her is notified of the shocking and even deadly risks associated with the surgery. Plastic surgery complications can range from scarring to fatalities and the effects of surgery can sometimes be traumatizing to patients both physically and psychologically. The recovery alone from any sort of surgery can be several weeks if not months. The pain and aftermath of the whole experience can be traumatizing and can leave patients in a state of doubt and regret, not to mention with a whole in their wallet. Plastic surgery can range anywhere from $1600 to $7800. The money spent on the cosmetic procedure alone, without mentioning the lose of money from work due to recovery period, are just the beginning of extreme measures that people are willing to go through and involve themselves in the horrific experience of plastic surgery. One of the reasons that many choose to go through with plastic surgery is because they want...

Equality and Diversity Essay

This essay examines the key factors that influence inclusive learning and teaching in the lifelong learning sector. Teaching methods will vary according to what you want to get out of the session, what the learners are able to achieve within the time frame, what materials and resources are available, what you are teaching, the needs of the learners and your personal style. This could be formal, informal or a mixture of both. Formal teaching methods include lecturers, demonstrations and presentations. Informal teaching includes discussions, group work and practical activities. As I will be teaching within the Beauty Therapy my lessons would be a mixture of both these delivery methods. Each activity within the classroom will consist of teaching and learning activities which are balanced to meet the different needs of my learners. Blended learning incorporates both traditional and computer based methods. This is commonly referred to as Information learning technology (ICT) this use of computer based technology to enhance teaching methods and resources or develop learner autonomy is widely promoted. The other main teaching methods other than ICT I am opting to use are lecturers and demonstrations. These demonstrations are very important as it would show the students the beauty routine that we would expect them to follow within their practical sessions. This ensures that students will be working to the same standard and will also adhere to the requirements of the awarding body. Practical sessions also help to explain difficult parts of the task when verbal exposition in not enough. I would also use group work activities, these particularly suit kinaesthetic learners but also when you have a group consisting of various abilities it allows both weak and strong learners to work collectively. Question and Answer sessions will be most commonly used in my tutorials. If I was teaching for example ‘the bones and muscles of the body) I would ask students to identify where muscles are on the body to help promote learning. At the start of the course the approach I will use to facilitate inclusive learning will be to carry out an initial assessment. This will help me identify what type of learners they are, I would then plan my teaching sessions to meet these individual needs by using a mix of visual, auditory, kinaesthetic teaching and learning strategies. For example I had just completed a practical demonstration to my group on ‘a facial routine’, I wanted to make sure my learners could confidently work in pairs and practice this routine on each other. A task like this would suit the kinaesthetic because he/she is provided with an opportunity to do and learn, and for the visual learner I would produce a step by step illustrated hand-out to support the routine. The Equality Act 2010 outlines protective characteristics which promote equality within schools and colleges and prevent discrimination. This includes sexuality, sex, disability, marital status and religion. In order to promote equality in my classroom I will need to respond positively to the diverse needs of all learners. Effective communication with learners is essential and it is the teacher’s responsibility to ensure that learners understand appropriate vocabulary and terminology and that comments are not discriminatory or offensive. As a teacher I would keep language simple so that if I have a learner from different backgrounds they may not have the same level of English as British learners. Resources used such as hand-outs, assignments and work sheets will also aim to promote equality and diversity. For example I would produce worksheets in a gender free language and also aim to promote multiculturalism by producing scenario based worksheets that use names from various ethnic backgrounds. I would also pace my sessions so students have plenty of time to take notes and ask any questions. Although inclusion is about supporting learners’ needs. It is not always possible for teachers to do this without support themselves. All teachers should be aware of the limits of their own responsibility and know when and where to access support for learners. you will not be able to get students to solve all their own difficulties. Get to know and use your institutions student services or pastoral support system: it exists to support your students, and you, so do refer where it is appropriate† Petty 2004 There are many places of referral within education; these can be both internal within the education establishment or an external organisation. The internal places of referral may inc lude student support services, learner study support centre, and counselling and careers advice. If I had a student for example who needed help with writing their essay I would arrange for them to go to the learner study support centre who would be able to assist Learners with learning difficulties or disabilities may need additional support and may need a designated support worker to support them within the classroom. A learner with dyslexia may find it hard to read text or numbers or have difficulty with writing and spelling, therefore I would produce written hand-outs and allow learners with dyslexia to present their ideas verbally or tape notes if necessary. Political correctness is a commonly used term at the moment and is used to ensure that expressions do not cause offence to any particular group of people. There are also many external agencies where learners can be referred, and which agency they are referred to would depend on the individual’s needs of the learner. This may include health related issues, family difficulties, poor attendance, or repeated challenging behaviour. The purpose of referring a learner to an external support agency is to support an individual student and to help them overcome their difficulties which are impacting on their education. For example if I had a student who was constantly disruptive in class and had a record of aggressive behaviour I would refer them to the Pupil Referral Unit. They would help and encourage the learner to be involved in the learning process, but in a smaller environment where they be in a much smaller group (3-4 learners) and also receive one-to-one support. Functional skills such as literacy, numeracy and ICT can be easily integrated into my lessons. These activities will meet both literacy and numeracy standards but are more easily understood by the learner. An example of this would be an assignment covering salon duties. I would ask the students to produce a sales ledger for stock to be re-ordered from our supplier. This would include maths as the student would have to calculate the cost of goods and also the total value of the order, it would include English as the student needs to produce the document and ICT as the student would have to present it in a typed format. The best way to establish ground rules with my learners is to negotiate them. The rules should be appropriate and fair and agreed as a whole class. As a teacher, I would establish ground rules during the first session, and plan a short activity around this. The class could discuss what is expected of them and write the rules in small groups. I would also list a few ground rules and then negotiate them as a class. This gives all learners the opportunity to be included and involved and as they have decided on the rules they are also more likely to respect them. When establishing ground rules it is important to ensure they are clear and brief and start positively rather than with ‘do not’. Once the rules have been established I would ask the learners to write them on some flipchart paper and hang them up in the class so that they are visible to all. It is also important to reinforce the rules consistently and to phrase learners when rules have been adhered to. I feel this method would motivate learners and also model good behaviour. Some rules may not be able to be negotiated. For example when the students come into class they must be wearing their salon uniforms and hair must be tied back. As a teacher even though I have designed my lessons to meet everyone’s needs I still need to ensure that my learners are motivated and want to learn. Maslow (1970) argues that basic needs such a food, safety, love and belonging and self-esteem need to be met in order for them to achieve their goals and aspirations. Everyone is motivated through either Intrinsic (because they want to learn) or extrinsic motivators (because they have to i. e. better job prospects). â€Å"A good teacher will play to the strengths of the learner when trying to raise enthusiasm in learning† Wilson 2004 – page 188 Other theories of motivation that can be used to motivate learners include the goal orientated theory, based on desire to be rewarded for achievement. A learner is given a clear direction or task and when it is reached there is a reward. For example I would set a group task for my learners to complete within the lesson. If they finish before the end of the lesson they are allowed an early break. If they don’t complete the task at the by the end of the session they will have to complete as homework. Albert Bandura (1994) suggested that an individual’s belief in themselves and their ability is related to what they can achieve. An example of how this can be applied into the classroom is to encourage my learner to try, and re-explain the topic if they are unsure. Through coaching and reassurance I will enable that learner to achieve. Giving effective feedback will help to improve the confidence of learners and develop their potential. Feedback should be delivered promptly and be a two way process. I would ask the learner how they think they did and get an idea if their understanding of the topic. Even if I had negative feedback to give to my learner I would end with a positive statement to incite the learner to take my comments on board and leave them feeling more positive about their performance. To conclude I suggest that inclusive teaching can only take place if both equality and diversity are positively promoted. Inclusive teaching relies on a range of differentiation strategies which may include adapted resources or additional classroom support. Depending on individual learner needs, learners may need to be referred to internal or external places of referral for extra support. .

Recruitment and selection with Job description and job specifications Essay

I m sending you a mail about your job and what your role is in the office. On the Monday morning you will be starting your job as soon as you come in. so I thought of giving you the required information so you would feel more comfortable. At first I would like u to know about the Recruitment and Selection is when you start advertising for the job. The advertisement is important to the firm because they must be carefully formatted so they attract the applicant in the first sight. The information should be clearly stated or the time will be wasted on selecting the right applicant. When we are selecting the staff we ask their CV and compare it job specification. Next we have the Training we should teach the staff the right rules and the firm objectives and its working products and the rules and regulations. They should be friendly and should be shown all around the working area Remuneration this is the method we pay our staffs. We pay them in hourly bases most of them work less than nine hours a day we pay you on the start on of every month. Appraisal is for motivating the staffs so they get more interested and work more hard. Dismissal is when you fire some one from the job either when they are not working properly or when we don’t have the job any more. The kinetic needs an engineer in the production department. For the best out come we should give the correct details for the advertisement about the job description and job specification. So we don’t spend a lot of time on selecting the applicant. The share holders will not have any problems but the directors of the company will have problems because they need to spend more money than they expected for advertising for the new staff, have to replace some one in that place and will have to face more consequences. The other staffs will have problems too because they will have to do over time, some may have to take care of both their jobs mainly the customers will have the problem in buying because they will not be satisfied because of the quality of the product the company might face a lose for a period of time until they get a new engineer. Hear are the descriptions of job description and the job specification. The job specification and the job description will help the candidates to know what they need and what type of work they need to do. Further information is in the next page. JOB DESCRIPTION The purpose of the job description is to inform the candidate about the type of job they will be doing and it will include 1 Job title. 2 Location. 3 Hours of work. 4 Wages. 5 Duties. 6 Other responsibilities. 7 Your position. 8 Tenure. JOB SPECIFICATION The purpose of job specification is to inform the candidate about the qualities needed in a successful candidate it will include 1 Qualifications 2 Previous work experience 3 Skills 4 Special interests 5 Member ship of professional body 6 Personality 7 Temperament This is the job specification and the job description of the current job advert JOB DESCRIPTION * Job title – Engineer Production department * Location – Surrey * Hours of work – 5 to 6 hours per day * Wages – 24,000 to 26,000 * Duties – To choose the correct product for the production, to check the capability and the capacity of the machineries, should be able to activate and deactivate the machineries and should also know to maintain them and to function with out any problem in the production * Other responsibilities – Must be more responsible at your work * Your position – * Tenure – Permanent only JOB SPECIFICATION * Qualifications – Post graduate in Mechanical Engineering, have a driving licenses * Previous work experience – experience with or within the mechanical power transmission industry * Skills – CAD, comprehensive pc literacy * Special interests – * Personality – must be focused in solving problem, desire to Temperament – These are the information about the methods of recruitment, which tells the advantages and the disadvantages of the types of recruiting methods.

How Crime Scene Insects Reveal the Time of Death

How Crime Scene Insects Reveal the Time of Death When a suspicious death occurs, a forensic entomologist may be called to assist in processing the crime scene. Insects found on or near the body may reveal important clues about the crime, including the victims time of death. Insects colonize cadavers in a predictable sequence, also known as insect succession. The first to arrive are the necrophagous species, drawn by the strong scent of decomposition. Blow flies can invade a corpse within minutes of death, and flesh flies follow close behind. Soon after coming, the dermestid beetles, the same beetles used by taxidermists to clean skulls of their flesh. More flies gather, including house flies. Predatory and parasitic insects arrive to feed on the maggots and beetle larvae. Eventually, as the corpse dries, hide beetles and clothes moths find the remains. Forensic entomologists collect samples of crime scene insects, making sure to take representatives of every species at their latest stage of development. Because arthropod development is linked directly to temperature, she also gathers daily temperature data from the nearest available weather station. In the lab, the scientist identifies each insect to species and determines their exact developmental stage. Since the identification of maggots can be difficult, the entomologist usually raises some of the maggots to adulthood to confirm their species. Blow flies and flesh flies are the most useful crime scene insects for determining the postmortem interval or time of death. Through laboratory studies, scientists have established the developmental rates of necrophagous species, based on constant temperatures in a laboratory environment. These databases relate a species life stage to its age when developing at a constant temperature, and provide the entomologist with a measurement called accumulated degree days, or ADD. ADD represents physiological time. Using the known ADD, she can then calculate the likely age of a specimen from the corpse, adjusting for the temperatures and other environmental conditions at the crime scene. Working backward through physiological time, the forensic entomologist can provide investigators with a specific time period when the body was first colonized by necrophagous insects. Since these insects almost always find the corpse within minutes or hours of the persons death, this calculation reveals the postmortem interval with good accuracy.

Emotional and social development in adulthood Essays

Emotional and social development in adulthood Essays Emotional and social development in adulthood Paper Emotional and social development in adulthood Paper Inherent in the study of human behavior is the basic comprehension towards the life cycle. This life cycle appreciates the stages which every human being shall pass beginning at birth and ending in death. With these views, theories are made with the three major assumptions in mind: First the essential premise to the varieties of life cycle theories proposes that there is a sequential order of development that is successive and clearly defined. Second is the assumption that each individual stage or period comprises of events or crises that need to be resolved for the development to progress in a smooth manner. This is termed as the epigenetic principle (Kaplan et al. , 1991). Whenever an individual fails to attain a resolution to a particular crisis or event, the subsequent periods will manifest that failure in such modes as the individual’s cognitive, physical, social and emotional maladaptive behavior. Thirdly, while these stages occur in sequence and contain events or crises that the individual needs to resolve, each stage however, reflects a â€Å"crisis point’ that makes each phase distinct from either of its preceding and succeeding stages (Kaplan et al. 1991). Nature and significance of the study Erikson is a key figure in the study of developmental psychology. He is instrumental with the current understanding of the different stages of a human life span. This research work is a product of the attempt to expand on the understanding of Erikson’s major work with the integration of several others who are instrumental to a more updated and comprehensive appreciation of the changes and growth that proceed to the development of an adult personality specifically focusing on his emotional and social maturity. The paper is developed towards a greater understanding of the characteristics of a person in this developmental stage called adulthood. Grand theories are explored alongside more recent models to present an updated portrayal of typical adulthood across cultures, race or persuasions. The paper is brought to a narrower focus by employing objective inquiry based on two statements of problem which the author attempts to satisfy for the remainder of this short study. ~Statement of the Problem 1. ) What is adulthood and its characteristic features? 2. ) What factors contribute to the social and emotional development of adulthood? It is indeed interesting to note the depth of the understanding of man’s multidimensional nature revealed by decades of research with each of the distinct aspects of his personhood. Perhaps considered the most â€Å"important† years simply because everything seems to have reached its peak during these times, and perceived as the longest portion among the different stages in the lifespan with all its promise of achievement, productivity and procreation. Discussion Perspectives in psychology and philosophy in general, are developed to help explain and shed light on various human behaviors that not only boggle and are difficult to understand. There are controversies that ensue and these also make interventions difficult at the same time. Development does not end once a person reaches maturity, but continues throughout life. Developmental psychologists seek to describe ad analyze the regularities of human development across the entire life span. It focuses primarily on these aspects of development that make us similar to one another (Berk, 2007). In order to thoroughly appreciate the changes that are happening to a young person specifically pertaining to the social and emotional aspects, the following discussion of the theoretical perspectives are undertaken. Theoretical Underpinnings of the Social and Emotional Development in Adulthood There is a necessity to introduce the observations made by social scientists through the decades after Erikson introduced his theoretical viewpoint on the eight psychosocial stages. It is essential to explain how Erikson elaborates on the two stages of adolescence and early adulthood in order to help accommodate on the theory proposed by Levinson and Arnett and others in their league. Erikson’s psychosocial stages: Adolescence Early Adulthood  Erikson identified the period of adolescence with a corresponding challenge to achieve a sense of identity. Adolescents need to leave behind the carefree, irresponsible, and impulsive behaviors of childhood and to develop the more purposeful, responsible, planned behaviors of adults. If the individual is successful in making this change, he will develop a sense of confidence and a positive identity. If he is unsuccessful, he will experience role confusion, which will result in low self-esteem and become socially withdrawn (Berk, 2007, ch. 12). This concept assumes that in general, children will progress towards adolescence with the all-important development of establishing his identity and those problems that normally are encountered around this stage basically are related around the individual’s search for identity. The period of early adulthood is a time for finding intimacy by developing loving and meaningful relationships. On the positive side, a person can find intimacy in caring relationships. On the negative side, without intimacy, the individual will have a painful feeling of isolation and his relationships will become impersonal (Berk, 2007). James Marcia’s four stages of identity formation The reason that the following concepts are importantly cited stems from the fact that these characteristics are investigated whether they form and are retained when young adult stage comes around. James Marcia posited these concepts and identifies what the researches tried to establish when commitment happens and at what particular stage it crystallizes. Commitment (Luyckx et al. , 2006) accordingly reinforces other characteristics which defines the young adult as no longer â€Å"aimless† and more satisfied with staying at home tending to the needs of his family members. Identity Achievement This stage of identity formation refers to what Marcia calls as â€Å"crisis leading to commitment† which is typified as commitment to alternatives that are before the individual and made by that individual in accordance to the experiencing of a crisis, definitely a time used to search, delve into and discover life’s choices. Foreclosure This is described by Marcia as that of when a person does not undergo crisis and is committed to plans made for his/her life. Moratorium This is a stage is on the actual experience of a crisis and considers the options that are before him/her. Identity Diffusion This is the stage which, according to Marcia is described as the absence of commitment, or the sense of obligation hence the resulting less necessity to seriously act on any alternatives. ~Results and findings The following discussion corresponds to the statement of inquiry posted at the beginning of the paper â€Å"What is adulthood and its characteristic features? † To this end, Arnett proposes his theoretical perspective which he deems as apt to the transitional gap between the two stages proposed by Erikson and described by Marcia. Arnett’s Emerging Adulthood The theory proposed by Jeffrey Arnett is labeled as emerging adulthood which is distinctly different from is more widely known as early or young adulthood. According to Arnett, there are characteristics that are prevalent in this stage. Identity formation is essentially known to be identified with the period of adolescence. However, even Erikson admitted that adolescence sometimes is prolonged or takes longer years of the â€Å"extended identity exploration,† Arnett noted (Arnett, 2000 in Erikson, 1958). In Arnett’s observation, if his theory becomes a valid stage in the life span developmental stages, the extended identity formation that Erikson describes may well fit this proposed stage (Arnett, 2000). Arnett identifies in his findings the areas of demographics, subjective perceptions, and identity exploration where many of the goals and activities of the individual in â€Å"emerging adulthood† happen (Arnett, 2000). The adult with a capacity for true maturity is one who has grown out of childhood without losing childhood’s best traits. As with one who has retained the basic emotional strength of infancy, the stubborn autonomy of toddle hood, the capacity for wonder and pleasure and playfulness of the preschool years, the capacity for affiliation and the intellectual curiosity of the school years, and the idealism and passion of adolescence, the mature adult incorporates these into a new pattern of development dominated by adult stability, wisdom, knowledge, and sensitivity to other people, responsibility, strength and purposiveness. People who have approached maturity can feel that they have loved and been loved, have done their work, have made their mark on people, and have made the most of what there was. Arnett’s extensive studies identify a gap becoming apparent with distinct characteristics separate from the adolescent and that of formal adulthood. In Arnett’s observation, this transition in between the stages is non-existent in most cultures other than the western (Arnett, 2000). Understanding the concept of Social Clock Studies affirm previous cultural and traditional observations concerning many aspects of adulthood. However, some glaring realities point to changing patterns due to many factors. The premise is based on the hypothesis that the maturation of an individual into adulthood is manifest when people conduct themselves in adult behavior and consider themselves to be adults. Then they should be dealt with as adults. By adulthood people are self-directing (Morris and Maisto, 1999). The belief that there are descriptive and prescriptive age norms concerning adults during their developmental shift involves the concept of the social clock. The social clock hinges on its description of society’s expectations where time to get married and have children at the same time attaining more of life’s burdens. For example, the traditional or what has been considered as the perception of women who have not yet entered into matrimony as individuals who are negatively appraised during their middle adulthood stage in contrast to the young adults. Social clock has something to do with an expectation that a person must somehow behave or conduct him/herself according to established developmental milestones or else, risk the consequences that may happen because the individual has allowed it to slip through (Morris and Maisto, 1999). The concept is not unknown to anyone today, this despite the fact that many among Americans have grown to know in informal set-ups that the social clock exists and must be followed. Social and physical development affecting the expansion and constriction of their world from infancy through older adulthood Social and physical development during the stage of infancy constricts the infant’s life because of the child’s inability to walk yet as well as their inability to associate well because of immature brain development which lasts until the person reaches the age at approximately 20 years old. Understandably social and physical developments start to increase during childhood, adolescence and middle adulthood in contrast to the infant. However, starting when the child reaches childhood, his/her world starts to increasingly expand as his motor skills develop and physical capability enhances. This goes on in largely intensified and greater results when the child enters the adolescent period until the person reaches the senior years and pace is affected considerably. The person’s social world constricts primarily because the physical limitations understandably inhibit the person and consequently isolates the person. Older adulthood similarly possesses the same characteristics of that of an infant and toddler because the genes dictate when these traits start to emerge (Shiner et al, 2002). The concept of Growth goals In the study by Bauer and McAdams (2004), these activities and behavior reflect the growth goals, both intrinsic and exploratory, that are necessary for them to develop eventually. This is called peer pressure and although many children pretend to keep their cool, almost all of those who are at this developmental level have their share of frustrations from the influence of other individuals that surround them. Peer pressure is inevitably tied up with the differences of culture and beliefs and when a particular child or young person emerges with the understanding that these experiences are necessary for them to ultimately be enabled to face many more troubles to come. It cannot be underestimated. Because of the major biological changes that their bodies go through, they tend to be flooded with overwhelming emotions that at most times make them confused. These biological changes include the normal maturation or unfolding of genetic characteristics marking the start of puberty. Because of the hormonal changes accompanying puberty, the child’s moods and behavior are often affected (Bauer and McAdams, 2004). ~ Synthesis of data Behavioral scientists describe the following changes expected to occur during this stage: accepting one’s physique and a masculine/feminine role; New relations with age mates of both sexes; Emotional independence from parents; achieving awareness of economic independence from parents; selecting and preparing for an occupation; developing intellectual skills and Concepts necessary for civic competence; Desiring and achieving socially responsible behavior. Preparing for marriage and family life. Building values in harmony with adequate scientific world-picture. These may not necessarily fall as exactly as they should but the pattern is there for many especially in the west (Arnett et al, 2001). The issues that surround emerging young adult include the individual’s adaptation to his body’s biological changes, struggle for autonomy, and peer influence. These are some of the important concerns that an adolescent individual faces. Biological changes entail awareness of the transformation that is occurring in the person’s body. Since an adolescent is passing through a physiological transition, and because the transformation involves the appearance, this is a major concern for any adolescent. In the teen’s struggle for autonomy, there is a mounting tension between parents and children of adolescent age because the latter prefers to think that he/she is capable of a lot of things and are allowed a greater amount of liberties. However, this becomes a source of frustration and conflict by both parents and children due to the latter’s inconsistencies. Furthermore, the shift from parental influence to peer influence is one of the major changes both the parents and teenagers have difficulty facing. Implications According to Piaget, individuals at this stage have developed the ability to form â€Å"hypothetical-deductive reasoning. † Children think that they already have knowledge and some experience, and believe capable to think logically; able to judge certain matters well. Though this may be true, recent findings in brain research show that adolescent emotions overcome rationality or despite some existing facts that should also be weighed, their feelings override reasoning. Teenagers make rash decisions which may or may not harm him/herself (Luyckx et al. , 2006). According to an explanation on Piaget’s formal operations stage, an individual may consider many possibilities in life, may be able to successfully handle crisis at most times, as well as analyze existing assumptions (Eisenberg et al. , 2001).

Definition and Examples of Prepositional Adverbs

Definition and Examples of Prepositional Adverbs In English grammar, a prepositional adverb is an  adverb  that can also function as a  preposition. Unlike an ordinary preposition, a prepositional adverb is not followed by an  object. An adverb is a word used to describe or modify a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. Adverbs can help describe how an action is performed (carefully, happily, quickly), when an action takes place (before, after, daily, weekly), or where an action takes place (here, there, inside, outside). A preposition, meanwhile, is a word used to show direction, location, or time (on, at, over, near). It is a word that introduces a prepositional phrase, which usually ends with an object. Prepositional phrases include expressions such as on the ground, by the store, and near the wall. English words that can function as prepositional adverbs include the following: about, above, across, after, along, around, before, behind, below, between, beyond, by, down, in, inside, near, on, opposite, out, outside, over, past, round, since, through, throughout, under, up, within, and without. Phrasal Verbs Prepositional adverbs  (also called  adverbial particles) are also used to form  phrasal verbs. These are idiomatic expressions, usually consisting of a verb and an adverb or a verb and a preposition, that form a single semantic unit. Examples include phrases such as see to, pulled up, call on, give in, and hold back. Phrasal verbs are also known as compound verbs or multiword verbs. What makes them unique is the fact that their meaning is not the sum of their parts, as Grover Hudson points out in Essential Introductory Linguistics. Hudson offers the example of throw[ing] up, an action that doesnt involve either throwing or a direction up. Another good example is call off, meaning to cancel. The meaning of the verb call is transformed by the addition of the prepositional adverb off, creating an entirely new meaning. A single verb can be made into several different phrasal verbs, each with their own distinct meaning, by adding different prepositions. For example, the verb come can be turned into come up (with) (to think of an idea), come in (to enter), come across (to find), or come forward (to offer information).   Examples One way to spot prepositional adverbs is to look for prepositions that do not have corresponding objects. In many cases, these words are serving as adverbs: We were playing records, Mama, listening to the radio, just hanging around. Mama, just hanging around.(Annie Lou in Waiting for MacArthur, a play by P. Paullette MacDougal. Dramatic Publishing, 2003)Ring-a-ring-a-roses,A pocket full of posies;Hush! hush! hush! hush!We’re all tumbled down.(Kate Greenaways Mother Goose or the Old Nursery Rhymes, 1881)He called her up, she said oracularly, he called her up, and asked her to keep you at the telephone, so he could talk to Miss Louise. A thankless child is sharper than a serpents tooth.(Mary Roberts Rinehart, The Circular Staircase, 1908)After he finished wiping his shoes, he stepped inside.In the last quarter of the game, their fans cheered them on.In the middle of the investigation, an informant came forward with valuable information.As they passed by, they saw all kinds of amazing sights through the window of the train. In each of these examples, the adverb (around, down, up, inside, etc.) is a word that can also serve as a preposition. In each case, though, the word is not used to  form a prepositional phrase. In other words, each preposition (which functions as an adverb) appears without an object, making it a prepositional adverb. Pure Prepositions vs.Prepositional Adverbs In The Elements of English Grammar, George Philip Krapp writes that [t]he difference between the pure preposition and the prepositional adverb is illustrated by the following two sentences: He ran up the stairs.He ran up a bill. In the first sentence, stairs is the object of up. The expression up the stairs is a  prepositional phrase  modifying the verb ran. In the second sentence, however, bill is not the object of up, and up a bill is a not a prepositional phrase modifying the verb ran. Rather, the word up is acting as a prepositional adverb modifying the verb ran. Together, the two words form the phrasal verb ran up, an expression whose distinct meaning has nothing to do with the act of running.

Mergers and Acquisitions Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 5000 words

Mergers and Acquisitions - Case Study Example The paper also deals with the resultant economies and advantages accruing out of the merger by studying the case of acquisition of another company by Hon Hai (Faxcom). While 'business strategy' represent the goal of the company to attain sustainable competitive advantage in one of the businesses of the company, 'corporate strategy' represents the objective of the company to manage multi-business activities to create corporate-wide advantage that will benefit each of the business the company owns and operates. The corporate strategy looks into the opportunities available to the company both internally and externally to enhance its competitive strengths and sustain its sales growth and profitability. A strategic analysis of any company thus includes assessing the strengths and weaknesses of the company based on the internal environment as well as threats and opportunities that the company is subjected to because of its relative positioning in the market and the industry. The main objective of any strategic analysis is to identify the ways in which the existing resources can be shared between the multiple business activities and identifying new resou rces, which will enhance the competitive strengths of the company. This may include the opportunities for mergers and acquisitions, which will provide the combined synergies and scale economies to the company for enhancing its competitive edge. Corporate mergers and acquisitions (M&A) have long received considerable attention from the corporate world, the investing public as well as the academicians and scholars. According to Thompson Financial Reports for the year 2005, the worldwide M&A deals was estimated at US $ 2.7 Trillion which has posted an increase of 38.4 percent from the total volume of US $ 2 Trillion for the year 2004. Cogut and Rodgers (2006) report that the increase in the Asian deals for the year 2005 increased by 64 percent over the last year and the dollar value was US $ 280 million for the period in the form of announced deals. A number of corporations in the international market have been

Value and Risk Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4000 words

Value and Risk Management - Essay Example This maximizes the potential use of the project. Value management focuses on the functions to provide maximum benefit. It aims for simplification without disregarding quality. Value engineering is synonymous with value management but the former focuses on the technical aspect. These two however could be interchanged. Value management (VM) is now a regular feature in the construction industry. A VM Team conducts a meticulous process of inspection and monitoring, brainstorming and analyzing the functions with respect to the entirety of the project. After that, it will provide the necessary recommendations to the client. The first part of the study focuses on value management which includes the four stages of the workshop. There are recommendations on the budget constraints of SBE Innovations, so that the amount could be maximised while reducing unnecessary costs. The VM study determines how construction can be simplified as quality remains. Functional analysis in value engineering aims to reduce the cost. Value engineering will be conducted to perform the following activities: Value engineering will focus on the engineering and technical aspects. Value management is more on the management and administrative side of the study, but both will be conducted simultaneously to attain greater results. In most cases, VM and VE are considered synonymous. Our consultancy firm has been in the forefront of value management in construction. We have conducted VM and VE for various clients, while our aim is to increase the value of any project. This new project with SBE Innovation is another major milestone and a challenge. Each and every part of the project is important, therefore, this should be given value by conducting a thorough analysis to determine whether a part is an important element of the whole. If it is not too important, the team will

Applying the Principles of Instructional Design in E-Learning Research Paper

Applying the Principles of Instructional Design in E-Learning - Research Paper Example Naidu (2006) defines e-learning as â€Å"the intentional use of networked information and communications technology in teaching and learning† (p. 1). E means electronic that signifies the use of the internet in educating students. Furthermore, learning is an act of acquiring knowledge through reading, studying, and applying the skills to measure a person’s understanding of the subject. However, the learning process is rooted on the experiences of students when they use technology. These experiences, whether positive or negative, affect their cognitive understanding of the lessons. Negative experiences develop apprehension in utilizing e-learning, so it is the duty of instructional designer to motivate these students. This paper aims to develop a storyline that will be the basis in applying the principles of instructional design. Storyline The educational system has changed the process of learning through the use of the internet. E-learning has been promoted because it i s more effective in incorporating knowledge on students than ordinary classroom instructions. The students utilize e-mail as a method of communicating with their professor. E-mail contains the link to the instructional materials provided by the professor, which informs students to study. Online learning also includes reviews, tests, and assignments. Students allot time for the application of their learning and professor encourages them to meet the deadline. This method is advantageous to students because they could access their study materials anywhere provided that there is an internet connection. Students living in a rural area are provided with broadband due to the difficulty in accessing their instructional materials. The common trend is that students have their own personal computers at home, while other students rent at the internet cafes. Flexibility is the main characteristic of utilizing information and technology; thus, students can study the course materials depending on their convenient time and place. It is expected that students will get high scores, but during the checking of assignments and tests, the teacher noticed that other students have low scores and only few got an average score. The teacher marvels at the poor performance of students because this reflects to the professor’s method of teaching. Thus, the professor began to study the problems of students in coping with the new method of learning. The teacher wants to find out the problem in his teaching method and begins to investigate on the negative experience that the students encountered. The questionnaires were sent via e-mail that contains the feedback and comments of students. Upon receiving the comments, the instructor discovers that the problems are focused on the instructional materials and the technical aspect. For the instructional materials, the students comment that the learning process was very boring or the materials are not interesting. Due to the monotonous feelin g of students, they never bothered to understand the concept in the text. The result is poor performance or low scores in their assignments and tests. Another comment received by the professor is the limited value of online information. The students complained that the materials are not new, which discourage them to study seriously. The professor wonders because this is in contrast with the study of Merrill (2002) that one of the principles of instruction pertains to the â€Å"

The Balkan States, 1876-1914 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

The Balkan States, 1876-1914 - Essay Example However as the event unfolded after 1908 as â€Å"in the ensuing Balkan Wars of 1912-13, Serbia obtained northern and central Macedonia, but Austria compelled it to yield Albanian lands that would have given it access to the sea. Serb animosity against the Habsburgs reached a climax on June 28, 1914, when the Austrian archduke Franz Ferdinand was assassinated in Sarajevo by a Bosnian Serb, Gavrilo Princip, setting off a series of diplomatic and military initiatives among the great powers that culminated in World War I.† (US Department of State). The rising tension between the two entities and the resulting conflict thus brought about the World War I. Further it was also a conflict of interest as both the countries tried to legitimize their powers in the region. Austria being the country largely responsible for weakening Turks claimed to have more territory under its control whereas Serbia refused to budge to the excessiveness of Austria thus both the countries were at odd during Balkan wars. It is largely being argued that the nationalism was one of the main thrust behind the first and the second Balkan War as Nationalism worked as a force to compel Europe to go far war. Tracing the history of the region, it would be evident that right from the Ottoman rule in the region to the last Balkan war of 1990s, Nationalism has emerged in the form of various sub-identities and sub-cultures which virtually divided the region and brought about the bitter consequences of the war. It is also believed that Nationalism emerged within the Balkan region mainly due to the conditions of the social structure within the region. The region was largely village based with strong differences between the rural and the urban areas. Further, with influx of Turks, most of the population of Serbia especially embraced Islam which gave the issue of nationalism a whole new face in the region. The historical roots of this

Classroom Behavior Management Plan Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Classroom Behavior Management Plan - Assignment Example In addition, it helps to make the school experience more productive and enjoyable for students from all backgrounds (Hue & Li, 2008). This paper will discuss a classroom behavior management plan that will consider the social and economic status of the students to develop it. In addition, the plan will consider the ethnic background of the students matters because it influences their needs. Mark Twain Elementary is a school that enrolls students in kindergarten to fifth grade. It is surrounded by facilities such as Helen’s Park, Weekley Family YMCA, McGovern Public Library and Helen’s McGovern Public Library. The community around the school comprises of middle class individuals from all over the world who have settled there for work and study. (Houston Independent School District, n.d). The Fifth Grade classroom is made up of eighteen students from different ethnicity backgrounds. The class has 8 white students, 4 African American , 2 Hispanic, and 4 American Indian. The proportion of boys to girls in the class is 8:10. Majority of the students have learning difficulties because of their bilingual nature. The students are from lower and middle-class social level. Most of the students are enrolled on reduced-price or free lunch. These students desire social and emotional needs that affect their academic performance. The behavioral characteristics are displ ayed in degrading language, bullying, and violence. Some students may keep silent when they are hurt but if it gets to extreme levels opt to fight (Wessler, 2008). This classroom behavior management plan will address the behavior problems by highlighting rules and structures to be used in class. The plan will promote academic performance by involving the students in the process of making rules that make them easy to adopt. I believe that setting big goals for my students at the beginning of the year will have a significant effect on them academically

REDUCTION OF SMOKING BEHAVIOR IN COPD IN LOS ANGELES AREAS Research Paper

REDUCTION OF SMOKING BEHAVIOR IN COPD IN LOS ANGELES AREAS - Research Paper Example It is a fatal habit, which can cause many diseases like COPD, stress and many forms of cancers. According to the American Society Council, the major cause for death in the states is mainly lung cancer, which is caused due to smoking. Apart from this, it causes many health problems, which need treatment that a common man cannot afford. In spite of all the efforts from the government to stop smoking, the number of people affected from various diseases maintained a steady level for the last few years, which needs to be monitored in the coming days, to reduce the intensity of the problem that is being faced by the present generation. â€Å"Smoking reduction and the rate of decline in FEV1: results from the Lung Health Study†. (Simmons & Connett & Lindgren & Kleerup & Murray & Bjornson & Tashkin, 2011). Current situation: It is totally impossible to count the number of smokers and people suffering from various diseases due to smoking. The only way to get such a data is to analyze v arious surveys regarding smoking and the hospital reports. When we evaluate the reports on cigarette control and smokers, we can see that Los Angeles is the worldwide leader in tobacco control and prevention. Compared to all other states in America, Los Angeles has the least smoking rate. The main reason behind this is as follows: Various tax policies adopted by governing council on cigarettes. It can force many people to stop the habit of smoking, due to the amount they have to pay for it. The media has been aggressive on the anti smoking policies. As the main thing, which directly influences the people today is media; the acts put forward by them affect the criteria. Various public policies like smoke free condition in several public areas, also affects the matter. Mainly the control of tobacco, which largely limits the production of cigarettes. Despite of success in these matters, it is seen that the medical reports from various hospitals reveal the fact that instead of a decline in the number of smokers, it maintained a constant level for last 8 years, some of the reports from the hospitals also prove the same facts: The reports from the cancer department of California hospital medical centre shows that, I. From 1990 to 2002 the patients admitted in the hospitals due to diseases like COPD, lung cancer etc has reduced from 50% to 35%, which is mainly due to the various laws imposed. II. For last 8 years i.e. from 2002 to till now, the rate has fluctuated between 35% and 30%, which shows the various shortcomings of the laws imposed. Same facts are revealed from the good Samaritan hospital reports, I. There was decrease in number of patients suffering from various health problems due to smoking, has decreased from 45% to 30% until 2002 II. After 2002, the

Classroom Behavior Management Plan Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Classroom Behavior Management Plan - Assignment Example In addition, it helps to make the school experience more productive and enjoyable for students from all backgrounds (Hue & Li, 2008). This paper will discuss a classroom behavior management plan that will consider the social and economic status of the students to develop it. In addition, the plan will consider the ethnic background of the students matters because it influences their needs. Mark Twain Elementary is a school that enrolls students in kindergarten to fifth grade. It is surrounded by facilities such as Helen’s Park, Weekley Family YMCA, McGovern Public Library and Helen’s McGovern Public Library. The community around the school comprises of middle class individuals from all over the world who have settled there for work and study. (Houston Independent School District, n.d). The Fifth Grade classroom is made up of eighteen students from different ethnicity backgrounds. The class has 8 white students, 4 African American , 2 Hispanic, and 4 American Indian. The proportion of boys to girls in the class is 8:10. Majority of the students have learning difficulties because of their bilingual nature. The students are from lower and middle-class social level. Most of the students are enrolled on reduced-price or free lunch. These students desire social and emotional needs that affect their academic performance. The behavioral characteristics are displ ayed in degrading language, bullying, and violence. Some students may keep silent when they are hurt but if it gets to extreme levels opt to fight (Wessler, 2008). This classroom behavior management plan will address the behavior problems by highlighting rules and structures to be used in class. The plan will promote academic performance by involving the students in the process of making rules that make them easy to adopt. I believe that setting big goals for my students at the beginning of the year will have a significant effect on them academically

Phil 3 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Phil 3 - Essay Example This idea was suggested by the representatives of positivism, namely Ludwig Wittgenstein, who stated that things and events in a certain life can have meaning but life itself is meaningless. Simply stated, such context implies that the life of a person has certain meaning for itself and for others in the shape of events happening within it and the results of this very life embodied by achievements, heritage and ancestors. This theory, to my mind, has reason, as it is rather fare to define meaningfulness of a person’s life based on the actions and achievements. I think that the meaning of life based on such theory could be estimated both in positive and negative way: for instance, a person who devotes his or her life to crimes and destruction also therefore grants the meaning to it – evil proves to be the meaning of life, but it actually exists, even such life is meaningful. On the other hand, there are people whose lives acquire meaning through positive actions and even ts (at least, the positive dominates). For the second type we could provide two movies as an example. They are Amelie and Ikiru. The first one is Amelie, the French movie telling the life story of a girl working as a waitress and living in modern Paris. Amelie felt that something important was about to happen in her life, that’s why, being encouraged and inspired by this premonition, she gladly helped people to add joy and color to their lives. Once she found toys in the cache of her bathroom, they belonged to a â€Å"boy† who used to live in that apartment in 1950s – she found him and brought the toys back to him (he was already an elderly man). There were many things she did for others like writing a love letter to a neighbor on behalf of her husband, readjusting the alarm clock of a wicked greengrocer, substitution of shoes and toothpaste etc. Amelie lives with an open heart ready to lend a helping hand, to give

Analysis of Economies of Scale

Analysis of Economies of Scale GONZALO PARENTE QUESTION 1: ECONOMIES OF SCALE: Shipping is an immense industry requiring huge financial investments and continuous development. Therefore, it has become an ideal game field to find and implement economies of scale. Any minor achievement on this will mean an impressive extra benefit in terms of cost reduction and efficiency gains. However, when economies of scale are managed under wrong market perspectives it can generate catastrophic results affecting for example ports flexibility and their commercial feasibility (e.g. congestion at terminal, hinterland) (P. Rodrigue, 2014). It is important to highlight that different shipping segments require different strategies due to variations on operations and infrastructure. Therefore, it can be found different shipping niches where economies of scale can be applied: Bigger capacity leads to lower costs per unit: Benefits, in terms of costs per unit, increase with ships capacity. If a comparison, in terms of operating costs, is made between a TTT class and a New Panamax vessel, it can be seen that megaships would be 30% cheaper than medium size vessels ($100/TEU) (P. Rodrigue, 2014). Bigger ships carry less fuel consumption: It is known that fuel consumption counts around 45%-50% of operating costs. Modern ships have led to a reduction on fuel consumption turning the shipping industry into a more profitable business. Under normal conditions, megaships consume 164 tons of fuel per day, being 35% lower than a medium size vessel (P. Rodrigue, 2015). Low speed (Slow steaming) also reduces fuel consumption: During the crisis of 2008-9 a new sailing approach came up, Slow steaming, reducing the speed to 18-20 Knots aiming to lower the fuel consumption. It enabled the market to absorb the over-fleet capacity during periods of slack demand, without impact in port congestion thanks to keep the fleet port call frequency. While a Post Panamax consumes 230 tons per day sailing at 24 Knots/hour, at 21 Knots/hour it would burn 150 tons per day (33% less) (P. Rodrigue, 2015). New shipbuilding techniques mean vessels being built rapidly: It has let ship-owners increase their fleets in a much reduced time at very low prices, taking advantage of the market conditions at all times. It is economy of scale applied to ship design. For example the new ships price fall between 2008 and 2009 was due to the appearance of revolutionary techniques offering new ships at very low prices (Stopford, 2009). Vessel ´s specialization leads to market flexibility: Not only economies of scale but also economies of scope are encompassed by ship specialization. Case: In order to fight against the inefficiency generated by bulk carriers sailing in ballast, a new specialized vessel came up called Multi-purpose. In terms of economies of scale, a multi-purposes vessel was an innovated idea due to the wide range of goods that it can accommodate at the same time, adapting it to the market conditions at all the moments without concerning about the port features, season, trends etc (Stopford, 2009). New technology and handling equipment speed up port operations: Operating mega vessels under high levels of productivity/efficiency requires sophisticated handling equipment. TTT vessels can be operated by 7 cranes at once (251 TEU/hour); while NewPanamax vessels need 6 cranes to handle 140 TEU/hour (Stopford, 2009). As a conclusion, the application of economies of scale to the shipping industry has led to a positive impact on the global economy. QUESTION 2: COST ELEMENTS OF SHIPPING: When talking about shipping costs, two main types of costs must be always taken into account: voyage related costs and no-voyage related costs. However, a better way to understand how different costs work in the shipping industry is by classifying them into capital, operating and voyage costs (ICS 2012, 2103; Plymouth university -Mr Adkins, 2014). The capital costs are fixed costs directly related to the vessel ´s purchase. These costs are part of the owner ´s responsibility. Some of these costs are Pre-delivery costs: the cost of transporting the vessel from the shipyard (e.g. japan) to the delivery point (e.g. Rotterdam). Loan repayment: it involves all the money that the shipowner must pay back to the bank. Leasing charges refer to the cost that shipowners must pay to the lessor e.g. TC for capesize, 5 years = $10500 per day. Depreciation: it refers to the decline in value of the vessel or any other infrastructure. Depreciation depends on the cost of the asset, the expected salvage value of the asset, the estimated life of the asset. Vessels life aprox. 25 years. Operating costs can be divided into four groups: crew costs, repair and maintainace, insurance and administration. Crew costs include the seafarer`s wages (Not the same for Philippines, American or Greeks), the travel costs (Not the same from UK to Rotterdam than UK to Italy), crew training (Depends on flag state/ship registries), medical inspections, recruitment process, insurances for crew accidents. Repair and maintenance costs include the maintenance of engines and other equipment, replacement of vessel ´s parts. For old vessels, it counts even 14% of operating costs. Insurance costs: The two compulsory insurances that every vessel must have are the 2/3 hull and machinery and the 1/3 third party liability. Administration costs consists of communication costs agents in port, or shore based administration and management charges. The voyage costs are one of the most important costs that shipowners must take into account when planning voyages. It is usually known as voyage estimation. Fuel charges: include the fuel price, the engine power and efficiency, the design and state of hull and the ship ´s speed. Port charges include the port dues which is the general use of port facilities (depends on volume of cargo, weight of cargo, gross tonnage and net tonnage). Service charges which include the pilotage, towage and cargo handling. Canal charges refer to the price vessels have to pay to ship across these short cuts. Please see below a good example of voyage estimation: (Private data from Shipbroking firm) Vessel: 8.000 TEU Route: Shanghai-Rotterdam (12.000 miles and 100% load factor). Bunker price = $650 Ship cost = $100m Containers = $20m Operating costs = $8.500 Value of cargo = $60.000 per TEU Annual interest rate = 3% Emission cost = $30 per tonne of fuel consumed Freight rate = $800 per TEU A ship is considered profitable when after taking into account capital, operating and voyage costs, still generate profits for the shipowner. This profit directly depends in the market level and freight rates. It is not the same to fix a vessel for WS50 than for WS80.Sometimes, it happens that freight rates vary for the same vessel size. One of the main factors is the geography. Depending on the demand for vessels in those specific markets, some shipowners will be willing to accept higher or lower freight rates. . For example: A vessel operating in Cross-MED for WS50 and a vessel operating UKC-ARA for WS80. In order to make your vessel more profitable, some strategies can be applied to seek economies of scale. Nowadays, one of the most popular seems to be slow steaming. QUESTION 3. WORLD MERCHANT FLEET, STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION: As seen, shipping is a global industry formed by a sum of different sub-markets. This question is focused on the bulk market and the main differences between three of the biggest segments: tanker, dry bulk and containers. When looking at different shipping segments, it is important to analyze not only the routes of each segment but also the type and vessel size used in each of the markets. For liquid bulk cargoes, the type of vessel used is known as tanker vessels. Tankers are divided in two main groups: crude oil tankers and product tankers (ICS, 2015). Crude oil tankers range from 80.000-120.000 dwt (Aframax), 120.000-200.000 (Suezmax), to 200.000-500.000 dwt (VLCCs-ULCCs). The main routes are AG-USG, AG-China, AG-Japan and AG-ARA-UKC (ICS, 2014). Product tankers range from 10.00-42.000 dwt (Handy), 42.000-60.000 dwt (MR), 60.000-120.000 dwt (LR1-LR2). The main routes are USA-UKC for Diesel, NE to USG-N. America for gasoline and AG-China/Japan/ARA for Naphtha. For the product industry it is important to take into account the refineries location (ICS, 2015). The main features of crude oil and chemical products are that must be stored into tanks, handled by pumping and in some cases can be corrosive and toxic. For dry bulk cargoes, the type of vessel used is known as dry bulk ships. Some of the main features of this cargoes are that are shipped in large quantities and handled with automated equipment like belts and conveyors. The size of the vessel usually varies with the commodity transported. These are the most important commodities in the dry bulk industry (ICS, 2013; E. Branch, 2012). Iron ore: Main routes: Brazil to China-W. Europe (Panamax)- Australia to Japan/China (Panamax). Raw material of steelmaking. Major importers, it changes with countries development. China, Japan and USA are considered the three bigger consumers. Major exporters, Australian, Brazil, India or South Africa. Key players: Vale, BHP Billiton, Rio Tinto, ArcelorMittal, Metalloinvest, Anglo American. Ports/Terminals: Itaqui, Tubarao, Sepetiba, Ponta do Uba, Dampier, Port Walcott. Coal: Main routes: Australia to Japan/W.EU S.Africa to EU (Handymax), Columbia to W.EU (Panamax). Raw material of steelmaking as well as fuel for generating power. There are two main types: Cocking coal and steam coal. Coking coal: Australia is the worlds largest exporter. Steam coal: Australia Indonesia larger exporters. Major coal importers are Europe and Japan (43% of the world ´s coal imports). Grain: Main routes: US to S.America/Japan/Asian countries (Panamax), Argentina to Brazil (Handysize). Wheat, maize, rice, barley, soya etc. They all seasonal and irregular in volume and route. Major importer: Japan, China, Russia, EU, N. Africa, Brazil, Middle East countries. Main exporters: Canada, N.S. America, Australia. The last group are the containerships. Containerships have been positively affected by technologic improvements such as containerization or automization. Vessels range from: -1000 TEU (Small feeder), 1.000-2.000 TEU (Feeder), 2.000-3.000 (Feedermax), 3.000-5.000 Panamax, 5.000-10.000 TEU (Post Panamax), 10.000-15.000 TEU (New Panamax), +14.000 (ULCV) (ICS, 2015). The main routes for containerships are from F.EAST to EU and US (Panamax, Post Panamax), USA to China (Panamax and Post Panamax) and from USA to EU (Post Panamax and smaller) (ICS, 2015). It is interesting to highlight that companies are struggling on the return voyage from West to East. It makes operators to find different ways to optimize the empty containers in order to avoid the loss of marginal profit. QUESTION 4. SUPPLY AND DEMAND AND ITS IMPACT ON FREIGHT RATES: (Based on my dissertation) The shipping industry is a global-scale industry ruled by a combination of factors in charge of determining market trends, market levels and cycles. The supply and demand for vessels will establish the shipping market balance. The mechanism used to link the supply and demand in this industry is known as freight rates. Freight rates reflects the balance of ships and cargoes available in the market at a certain time (Stopford, 2009). Too many ships usually mean low freight rates, and too few ships usually mean high freight rates. Once freight rates are established, charterers and shipowners adjust to them, bringing the supply and demand into balance (Stopford, 2009). The Baltic Exchange is the organization in charge of providing, in co-operation with top shipping companies, daily reports for different markets and vessels sizes (BDTI TD1, TD6à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦). In terms of the shipping market model, 5 supply and 5 demand factors strongly influence the freight rates. On the demand side, one of the most important variables is the world economy and, especially, the global business cycles and local development trends (emerging economies-Nigeria). World economy plays an important role when determining the price of commodities and also when setting the freight rates that buyers and sellers are able to pay to transport them. Another two key factors to achieve economies of scale are the average haul distance and the amount of cargo shipped per voyage. Random economic shocks (2008 crisis) have also a great weight in shipping demand. As these shocks affect demand and people economic power, freight prices are reduced as the demand for these commodities is considerably reduced. And, last but not least, transport costs encompassing capital, voyage and operational costs (ICS, 2015; Stopford, 2009; Lectures given by Jonathan Challecombe: International Shipping and Maritime Management and Markets). On the supply side, the new buildings and scrapping activities are essential to adjust the market balance. New buildings increase the fleet supply, lowering freight rates. Scrapping reduces the fleet supply, increasing freight rates. Fleet productivity is another factor which is focused in vessel ´s efficiency. In a fast pace market, speed and waiting times are crucial for business profitability. The last variable is the freight revenue. For example in markets with strong trends, shipowners may extend their vessel ´s life or purchase second-hand vessels to take advantage of the market; while in markets ruled by weak trends, old ships are scrapped 10 or 15 years before their commercial life ends (ICS, 2015; Stopford, 2009; Lectures given by Jonathan Challecombe: International Shipping and Maritime Management and Markets). For example it is good to understand what is going with the current dry bulk and container markets. The very low freight rates experienced during the last few months are caused by the extreme difference in terms of fleet growth (+) and the fleet demand (-). This situation has led to overcapacity. As a conclusion and in order to become again a balanced industry, shipping companies should follow a new tool developed by BIMCO known as Zero supply growth. It mainly require shipowners to neutralize the delivery of new vessels every year by scrapping an equal amount of capacity from the existing fleet (BIMCO, 2016). Mergers and acquisitions are also great strategies although will lead to a more monopolized market. QUESTION 6. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN GLOBAL ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT AND SEABORNE TRADE: As a derived demand, maritime shipping is shaped by worldwide macroeconomic conditions. Although shipping market is very complex we can say that there are five major factors which rule the demand for shipping: transport costs, seaborne commodity trades, average haul, random shocks and world economy, which is the most important one (Stopford, 2009). World economy impacts on the demand for shipping mainly through the business cycle and the trade development cycle. Business cycle lays the foundation for shipping cycle, so that fluctuations in the rate of world economic growth cause a cyclical pattern of demand for shipping. There is a close relationship between the growth rate of shipping and the world GDP, what becomes clear if you see how both parameters have closely changed over the recent history. It is not surprising given that world economy generates the most of demand for shipping by importing raw materials for manufacturing or exporting manufactured products. Another side of the relationship between macroeconomics and shipping is the seaborne commodity trades, which can be divided into short-term and long term. Seasonality of some trades is an important cause of short-term volatility. For instance, many agricultural commodities are linked to seasonal reasons, caused by harvest. But in the oil business there also is a cycle that reflects the seasonal fluctuation in energy consumption in western countries. Seasonality has a great impact on spot market (Dry and wet bulk) (ICS, 2015). The flows of raw materials (mainly ores and crude oil) follow a shipping pattern from developing countries towards developed countries. Transports terminals in developing countries are specialized in loading raw materials while developed countries unload are focused on unloading. On the other hand, the flows of manufactured goods mainly concerned developed countries, but it is changing due to the effects of globalized manufacturing processes. We have a new geography of global trade, which can be depicted quite accurately by maritime shipping routes. Developing countries are no longer just the suppliers of high volume-low value raw materials, but instead now also import large volumes of oil, iron ore, and participate in global value chains and the globalized production of manufactured goods (Stopford, 2009). As a result, developing countries are emerging as major world exporters and importers. They have also become main players in globalized manufacturing processes. As an instance we can mention that the growing energy needs of developing countries and the expansion of South-South trade are contributing to recharging tanker shipping and trade maps, supported by the US strategy to get its energy independence. QUESTION 7. ESTIMATING AND FORECASTING It is said that information is the most important variable that make shipping companies win or lose. Currently, technology has enhanced companies to get information from the market, global economy and many other factors in order to make an accurate market estimation and take advantage of it (Stopford, 2009). However, it is said that not all information is reliable, creating uncertainty among shipping players. It is why not only shipowners but also charterers, traders, operators and even brokers must have a clear network to get daily outlooks of what is going on in the market at every stage. Some of the most common information sources are: Shipping institutions: BIMCO, IMO, ICS, BALTIC EXCHANGEà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Broking companies: PLATEAU DAILY REPORTSà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Newspapers, magazinesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ QUESTION 9. RISK MANAGEMENT: A popular strategy used in the shipping industry to reduce the effects of volatile markets is known as bunker hedging. It consists in a fuel price analysis and it is used with the purpose of reducing the company ´s exposure to volatile bunker costs and eliminating the risk of companies ´ bunker budgets getting out of control (Mercatus, 2016). Swap is one of the most popular uses when bunker hedging (Mercatus, 2016). It allows the buyer to hedge his bunker exposure by fixing the price he pays for fuel at a predefined level, over a predefined period of time. Two different scenarios can be found: Scenario 1: It is when fuel prices move from below the swap execution price. As a financial compensation, the shipping company has to pay back the difference between the market price and the swap price to his trading counterparty in order to offset low prices in the market (C, Cheetham, 2013). Scenario 2: It is when fuel prices move above the swap execution price. As a financial compensation, the shipping line has to receive the difference between the market price and the swap price from his trading counterparty in order to offset high prices in the market (C, Cheetham, 2013). A great forecasting job must be done before entering into a bunker hedging agreement. Shipping companies need to be sure in terms of future bunker prices trends. Related factors such as new oil fields, global trade and international regulations must be always taken into account. When properly managed, bunker hedging can lead companies to generate bigger profits as the exposure to fuel prices fluctuations is removed. A freight derivate contract is defined as a financial contract between two different parties, where future prices for transporting goods by sea are agreed. Freight derivate contracts are usually divided into two main groups: Forward Freight Agreement (FFA) and Freight Swap Agreement (FSA) (Baltic Exchange, 2016). These derivate contracts are used by charterers and shipowners in order to hedge against fluctuations in freight rates. The main difference between the FFAs and FSAs is the assumption of risk. With FSA risk for both parties, with FFA risk assumed by the counterparty. FFAs cover the route, settlement date, contract size and contract rate. Lastly, the main difference between hedging and speculation is that speculation involves an activity to make profit and hedging only attempts to reduce economic business risk. QUESTION 10. OTHER SEGMENTS AND SPECIALIZED CARGOES: LNG stands for Liquefied Natural Gas and it is considered the third major energy source carried by sea, after oil and coal. It is one of the most environmentally friendly energy source which is mainly used for power generation and for the domestic use. LNG is considered a hazardous cargo which requires coated tanks and isolated facilities at port in order to safely handle its extremely low temperature (ICS, 2015; Stopford, 2009; Energy Annual Reports, 2016). LNG is usually transported by Very Large Gas Carriers for very long voyages. LNG can be also transported via pipelines, although for that liquefaction is needed. The transport of LNG includes four different activities: Transportation of LNG from gas fields to plants, via pipeline. Methane gas is separated from other substances and stored for sea transportation. LNG loaded into ships. Receive and store LNG at delivery terminals. The LNG costs are divided in the following proportions: 15% production, 40% liquefaction, 25% sea transport, 20% regasification. It is important to highlight that LNG trade is conducted with long-term contracts (Bareboat or Time Charters) with fixed prices. Main exporters: Iran, Qatar and Russia in less scale: Africa, Asia, North and South America and the EU. Main importers: USA, EU, Japan, S. Korea and China. QUESTION 11. PORT DEVELOPMENT: In order to better understand how ports and terminals develop, it is fundamental to focus in a specific port. In my case, the Port of Rotterdam has been chosen as it was one of my research topics at university. As shipowning companies, ports and terminals are in continuous development process where technology and efficiency improvement are always sought. Time reduction when loading and unloading, port accessibility, hinterland connections and the ability of create economies of scale in terms of cargo handling and cargo storage are some of the main reasons why ports have evolve from individual specialized terminals to huge multipurpose shipping hubs where not only shipping but also logistics activities are carried out(Notteboom and Rodrigue, 2004). It has led to improve the supply chain and the instalment of strategies such as JIT (Just in time). Spatial relationships between terminals are key points in port competition. In order to explore how terminals should interact with each other, two main concepts are highlighted: centrality intermediacy (Notteboom and Rodrigue, 2005). Centrality places terminals as a point of origin and destination traffic. It involves intermodal activities and gene rates economic activities in its vicinity. Intermediacy sees terminals as an intermediate point in the flow of freight. It could also be a good point to exploit transshipment (Notteboom and Rodrigue, 2005). The main reasons why some ports stop developing when they reach a certain stage are: lack of green fields to build new terminals (Eg, Southampton Port or the ICTT Terminal, Vallarpadam-India) and the strong competition from terminal global terminal operators such as Dubai Ports World and APM (Venugopal, 2014). For example, the Port of Rotterdam has been working for a long time in two main expansion projects. Firstly, Maasvlakte I which was completed few years ago, and Maasvlakte II which is still on-process. In terms of space, the Port of Rotterdam will gain a total of 20%-22% extra space to allocate the forecasted rising number of containers and enhance a more viable multimodal system. Economies of scale are achieved by the great number of containers that it is able to handle. Thanks to its dimensions, total costs are divided over more than 11.5 million TEU they handle every year. The provision of customer focused services as well as 24/7 cargo handling and storing activities enhance the port to provide a reduction on vessel ´s turnaround times what leads to better productivity. Last but not least, the proximity of the dry bulk and tanker terminals to key production and storing points give the port an important comparative advantage. It minimizes costs and increases safety and effi ciency in terms of time. The great connections with the hinterland and foreland makes this port a global shipping choke point (Notteboom and Rodrigue, 2004). In order to remain globally competitive, attract foreign trade and increase the total volume of exports and imports, countries have to encourage private operators to invest in national ports infrastructure including port configuration, handling equipment and port connectivity. QUESTION 12: THE CONTAINER SHIPPING MARKET: Over the years, container shipping lines have placed increasing amounts of hope in the notion that the trading growth being experienced in emerging markets would improve the demand of containerships. However, as a large number of Super-Post Panamax containerships (ULCV) of size between 13,000 19,000 TEUs being introduced to the market, increasing the current total capacity of world containership in service to 18.2 million TEUs; the overcapacity issue looks set to continue in 2015, although less severe than year 2009. Currently, the largest containership recorded in the industry are the sister vessel MSC Oscar and MSC Oliver with the size of 19,224 TEU (Lloyds List, 2016). The market is expecting to see more of such vessels magnitude being built and deliver in the near future. In terms of global trends ruling the container`s supply and demand, some facts can be highlighted: 1. Container ´s overcapacity: Timing is one of the main factors when referring to the shipping supply and demand. As great expectations were placed into the current market, many shipowners purchased bigger and more sophisticated vessels, which nowadays can ´t be employed. 2. Emerging economies power demand for shipments: Containerships owners can still find a glimpse of light for this market in emerging economies. For example, Nigeria will see its population grow by 275 million by 2050. It gives an idea of the shipping potential of this emerging economies/countries. 3.Cargo adaptation to the container shipping method: containerization. Cargo can be directly shipped from the mill to the consignee, or even to the customer, making the shipping industry more efficient and safer. 4.Sustainability and environmentally friend: New trends have come up concerning about environment issues. It has radically affected the cost for carriers and consequently the vessel ´s supply and demand (CSR). 5.Customer focus and new technology: Development in technology mainly seeks compliance with new regulations and cost-efficiencies. The current lack of transparency along the supply chain can affect either supply as demand due to wrong market forecast or unforeseen constraints. The East-West trade is mainly driven by the import demand of products from China and India to Europe. However, companies are struggling on the return voyage from West to East. It makes operators to find different ways to optimize the empty containers in order to avoid the loss of marginal profit. In order to remain competitive, operators will have to follow some tendencies which will shape the container industry (ICS, 2015) Cost reduction and vessel optimization can be achieved through forming shipping alliances between containership operators. The alliance agreements generally cover areas such as the type and size of vessel to be employed on each route; itineraries; port rotations, chartering of ships; feeder services and the coordination of inland services. 2M, O3, G6 alliance and the CKYHE. Slow steaming can be also applied (Lloyds List, 2016) Another way is the slot chartering: By leasing out part of the vessel ´s slot during the return voyage from Europe to Far-East, operators can obtain optimum efficiency of fleet operation and to maximize slot utilization (Lloyds List, 2016). And last but not least, cost-savings measure adopted by operators is through the use of longer routes in the East-West trade. For instance, instead of using the Suez Canal, ship operators may choose to travel by a longer sea route through the Cape of Good Hope enabling operators to accommodate additional ships with a similar frequency of port calls and reducing the overcapacity issue. 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